Medival History

 

THE DELHI SULTANATE

There are five dynasties that ruled at Delhi from A.D. 1206 to 1526. They were as follows:

·                     Slave Dynasty – (1206 – 1290 A.D.)

·                     Khalji Dynasty – (1290 – 1320 A.D.)

·                     Tughlaq Dynasty – (1320 – 1414 A.D.)

·                     Sayyid Dynasty – (1414 – 1450 A.D.)

·                     Lodi Dynasty – (1451 – 1526 A.D.)

SLAVE DYNASTY (1206 – 1290 A.D.)

 After Muhammad Ghori’s death all the Muslim rulers who ruled over India from 1206 to 1290 A.D were either slaves themselves or were descendants of the slaves rulers and so their dynasty is generally known as the “Slave Dynasty’’ in the history of India. Muhammad Ghori died at Dhamyak in the year 1206 A.D. He had no male heir and so his vast Empire was divided among his relatives and high officials and generals. In Ghor, Muhammad Ghori’s own nephew ; in Gazni Taj-ud-Din Yalodoz, a general of Muhammad Ghori ; in Sind Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, another chief of Muhammad Ghori ; and in India Qutub-ud-Din rose to power. Of all these Qutub-ud-Din Aibak proved more successful and was able to found a dynasty which is called after his name.

QUTUB-UD-DIN-AIBAK (1206 – 1210 A.D.)

 

Qutub-ud-Din was a slave. He was purchased by the chief Qazi of Nishapur. But because of his courage and other qualities of head and heart he was later on bought by Muhammad Ghori. Then by his sheer dint of merits and loyal service he rose to the position of a Viceroy. It was as a Viceroy under Muhammad Ghori that Aibak achieved most of his military exploits. In 1191 A.D. Aibak captured Hansi, Delhi and Meerut and in 1194 A.D. Ranthambor, Koil and Beharas fell before his assault. In 1196 he conquered Gwalior and compelled its Hindu ruler to pay heavy tributes. In 1197 A.D. he marched against Raja Bhim Deva of Gujarat and defeated him in a contested battle. Anhilwara, the capital of Gujarat, was captured and sacked and a huge booty fell in the hands of the Muslims. In 1202 A.D., Aibak won another great victory against the Chandela rulers of Bundelkhand.

After becoming an independent ruler in 1206 A.D. Qutub-ud-Din Aibak greatly extended his influence and power both by his volour and matrimonial alliances. He himself married the daughter of Taj-ud-Din Yaldoz, gave his sister in marriage to Nasir-ud-Din Qubacha and married his daughter to Iltutmish, one of his very able slaves. As Aibak was himself a slave he got a letter of sanction from Mahmud’s nephew and immediate successor of Muhammad Ghori. In 1210 A.D. when he was playing Chaugan or Polo at Lahore, he fell from his horse, was very badly injured and succumbed to his injuries.

It was Aibak, who for the first time severed all connections with Ghazni and laid the foundation of an independent Muslim state in India. According to one contemporary author, Hasn Nizami, he administered the country well, dispensed equal handed justice to the people and exerted himself to promote peace and presperity of the realm. Because of his generosity he is often called “Lakhbakhsh’’ or   “Giver of lacs’’.

He built two great mosques – one at Delhi, known the Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque and other at Ajmer called Dhai din ka Jhopra. These mosques were built out of the material acquired from the demolished temples. Qutub-ud-Din is also credited to have began the construction of the world famous Qutub- Minar, the tallest minaret in the world. Many scholars of great repute, such as Hassan Nizami (the author of Taj-ul-Massir) and Fakhr-ud-Din (the author of Taikh-i-Mubarak) flourished during his reign and were liberally patronized by him.

 

ARAM SHAH (1210 – 1211 A.D.)

After Qutub-ud-Din’s death his son Aram Shah succeeded him. Aram shah proved quite incompetent and so confusion reigned supreme. Some of the nobles rose to the occasion and invited Aibak’s son-in-law Iltutmish to ascend the throne. Iltutmish soon responded to the call; deposed Aram Shah and secured the throne for himself.

 

ILTUTMISH (1211 – 1235 A.D.)

Iltutmish was the slave of a slave because Aibak, who himself was a slave, had bought him as a slave, originally Iltutmish belonged to the Albari tribe of Turkistan but his relatives, who were jealous of his abilities, sold him to a merchant of Bukhara ( Jamal-ud-Din by name ). As a slave he was first brought to Ghazni and then to Delhi, where Qutub-ud-Din bought him. In 1211 A.D. Iltutmish no doubt, ascended the throne but his position was not so secure. He found himself surrounded on all sides by a great many difficulties.

                                                                                                

First of all Iltutmish paid his attention towards the Qutubi and Muizzi Maliks or Amirs who resented the usurpation of throne by Iltutmish which lawfully belonged to them. Iltutmish gave them a crushing defeat near Delhi. Having consolidated his position Iltutmish paid his attention towards his rivals, the chief among them was Yaldoz, who had established himself as the independent ruler of Ghazni. He marched against him and in 1215 A.D. gave him crushing defeat in the historic field of Tarain. Yaldoz was taken prisoner and later on out to death. After dealing with Yaldoz, Iltutmish paid his attention towards another powerful rival, Nasir-ud-Din Qubacha. He was the ruler of Uch (Multan) and Sind.

After the death of Aibak the Khiljis of Bengal withdrew their allegiance and Ali Mardan declared himself independent. In 1212 A.D. he, however, died and then Iltutmish asked his successor, Ghias-ud-Din Khilji to submit to him. But as he refused to do so an expedition was sent against him in 1220 A.D. In the battle that ensued Ghias-ud-Din was defeated and slain and a large number of Khiljis were taken as captives. Bengal was completely subjugated.

In 1231 A.D., Gwailor was attacked, but its ruler Mangal Deva offered a tough resistance and it was after 11months of prolonged war that Iltutmish was able to conquer it in 1232 A.D. Then within the next few years (1232 – 1235 A.D.) Iltutmish conquered Malwa, Ujjain, Ranthmbhor and Mandu till the boundaries of the Muslim Empire touched the banks of the Narbada.

Invasion of Changez Khan. 1221A.D: But these wars that Iltutmish had to fight were nothing as compared to the danger that India had to face in 1221 A.D. this year the Mongols, under their leader Changez Khan made their appearance for the first time in India. Bukhara, Balkh, Samarqand and other important places in central Asia all fell before him within no time. Khwarizm or Khiva was the next to be attacked by Changez Khan. Its ruler Shah Jalal-ud-Din who was at that time regarded as one of the greatest rulers of Asia ran for his life towards India at the approach of the invader. On reaching the banks of Indus he requested Iltutmish to provide him shelter in Delhi for some time. But Iltutmish acted very wisely and politely refused to give him shelter on the grounds that the climate of Delhi would not suit him. He fully knew that if he provided shelter to the shah of Khwarizm he would naturally encourage the Mongol conqueror to invade India.

Achievements of Iltutmish

·         Iltutmish was undoubtedly one of the greatest rulers of the slave dynasty. He is generally regarded as the real founder of the Muslim Empire in India. Under his able ministers like Fakhar-ul-Mulk and Muhammad junaidi he organized the administrative system and introduced many beneficial reforms.

·         For the promotion of trade and commerce many new roads were laid out. Several silver and gold coins were struck which were quite new to the currency of India. One of such coins was the silver tanka, which according to Lanepoole was the ancestor of the modern rupee and weighed about 175 grains.

·         He is also said to have administered equal-handed justice to his subjects. If we believe Ibn Batuta, he like Jahangir in later days fixed a chain and bell in his palace so that even the humblest of his subjects had no difficulty in approaching him. Iltutmish shifted his seat from Lahore to Delhi, which remained the capital of all the Muslims rulers up to the advent of the Mughal dynasty.

·         He constituted a corp of 40 loyal slaves Amirs Known as Turkan-i-Chihalgani.

·         He started Ekta system in Delhi Sultanate.

·         He was a great builder and is credited to have completed the Qutub-Minar and the Qutabi Masjid. Many scholars and poets of great repute like Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ruhani, usmani, Taj-ud-Din Razeb etc., flourished under his royal patronage. Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote his famous Tabqat-I-Nasari, which is an important source of information regarding Iltutmish and his times.

RUKN-UD-DIN FIROZ SHAH (1236 A.D.)

Knowing fully well the weaknesses of his sons Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Raziya Sultan as his heir-apparent. But most of the nobles could not reconcile themselves to the idea of a woman ruling over them, and so after the death of Iltutmish they placed on the throne one of his sons, prince Rukn-ud-Din Firoz instead of his daughter Raziya Sultan. While Rukn-ud-Din Firoz busied himself in sensual pursuits, the affairs of the state were looked after by his mother Shah Tukran.

RAZIYA SULTAN (1236 – 1240A.D.)

Raziya Sultan was a wise and capable daughter of Iltutmish. Impressed by her great qualities he had named her as his heir. Even during his life time he had allowed her vast powers. Whenever he was away from Delhi either on military expeditions or on other state work he left the whole affairs of the state in her hands and she proved more than the confidence that was resposed in her

Raziya successfully crushed the rebellions that occurred in Multan, Lahore and Hansi etc. Muhammad Junaidi, Wazir of the Kingdom, who was one of the greatest opponents of Raziya, was defeated and he ran for his life. She cast off her female garments and tried her best to play the king. She took an active part in campaigns against the Hindus and the rebellious Muslim chiefs. She herself led an expedition against the rebellious governor of Lahore and forced him to acknowledge her suzerainty. She began to shower favours on one Abyssinian slave named Jamal-ud-Din Yakut the Master of the Horse. The Turkish Amirs especially the forty or group of forty nobles greatly resented the preference shown to Yakut.

The first to raise the standard of revolt was the Governor of Lahore but Raziya easily defeated him. She had hardly crushed that revolt when another appeared in Bhatinda. Raziya marched towards that side in order to put down the revolt but was taken prisoner by its Governor Altunia and her favourite, Yakut, was killed. Then Raziya cast her spell on her captor, Altunia, and married him. In the meanwhile the Amirs, proclaimed Bahram Shah, brother of Raziya, as the king of Delhi. She with her husband was defeated by Bahram near Kaithal, but they managed to escape. They fell in the hands of some rebels who put them to death in 1240 A.D. near Kaithal.

BAHRAM (1239 – 1242 A.D.)

Raziya was succeeded by her brother, Bahram Shah, in 1239 A.D. a new post of nayab-i-mamalikat was created under him and all the power of state was given in the hand of this officer. Aitgin was appointed to this post for the first time. After a brief reign of two years Bahram was treacherously murdered in the beginning of 1242 A.D. After Bahram, Masud Shah, a grandson of Iltutmish was raised to the throne in 1242 A.D. But this change did not improve the matter in any way. It is said that he gave himself up to pleasures and developed a habit of seizing and killing his noblest chiefs. The “Forty ‘’ soon grew tired of him and consequently he was thrown into the prison in May 1246 A.D. where he died shortly.

NASIR-UD-DIN MAHMUD (1246 – 1266 A.D.)

In A.D. 1246 Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, another son of Iltutmish ascended the throne. He placed all the power into the hands of his Prime Minister, Balban. He used to write the copy of kuran to earn his livelihood. They worked in perfect harmony except on one occasion when Balban removed from office for a brief period (A.D. 1253) at the instigation of Imadud-din-Raihan, the leader of the party of Indian Muslim nobles. As a Prime Minister he ruled with a strong hand. He crushed the rebellious governors of Bengal. Avadh and Sind and defeated the Mongols who had marched into the Punjab in A.D. 1257. He also punished Mewati marauders. The frontier posts were strongly garrisoned under his able cousin Sher Khan for checking the Mongol menace. After the death of Nasir-ud-din, who had no son, Balban ascended the throne. Minhaj-us-Siraj held a high post (Chief Quazi) under Nasir-ud-din and dedicated his Tabaqat-I-Nasiri to his patron.

GHIYAS-UD-DIN BALBAN (1266 – 1287 A.D.)

Balban’s original name was ‘Ulugh Khan’ who belongs to the Slave tribe of Turkistan. He was a slave of Iltutmish. He had married his daughter to Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud and held the post of ‘Naib’ or deputy Prime Minister to Sultan. As Sultan Balban worked to achieve his aims with still vigour. He had become very wary of the pretensions of the Chihalagani and wanted to crush them. He organized an efficient espionage system to watch the activities of the nobles; struck hard on them if any misdeed found and in curse of time destroyed their power completely.

When the Mongol under their leader Tamur reappeared in the Punjab in A.D. 1285, Balban sent his eldest son ‘Muhammad’ to repel the attack but he was killed. Balban could not recover from this tragedy and died broken hearted in A.D. 1287 after 40 years of rule, half as minister, and half as king. Balban believed in a semi divine theory of kingship “a shadow of god on the earth”. He was champion of pure Turkish blood and would never allowed office to be given to low born people. He declared himself a descendant of a Mythical Turkish hero ‘Afrasiyab’.

He modelled his court in that of Persian manner and introduced Persian etiquettes like ‘Paibos’ (Prostration) and Sijda(kissing of Monarch’s feet ). He introduced the Persian ‘Nauroz’ ceremony in the court. He also gave up drinking wine. The credit to organize a separate department of army (Diwan-i-ariz) goes to Balban. He was also a patron of men of letters and showed special favour to the poet Amir Khusrau. He gave shelter to many scholars, princes and kings of Central Asia who sought refuge in Delhi court from the horrors of Mongol devastations.

On Balban’s death his grandson Kaiqubad succeeded him to the throne. The affairs of the government fell into disorder. Nobles began to form factions to seize power. Jalal-ud-din Khilji, the Ariz-I-Mumalik (minister of war) gathered all the powers into his hand and murdered Kaiqubad. Thus the rule of Slave Dynasty came to an end in A.D. 1290.

KHILJI DYNASTY (1290 – 1320 A.D.)

The Khiljis were of Turkish origin but had become Afghan in their customs and social traditions. So they are often regarded as Afghans in India.

JALAL-UD-DIN KHILJI (1290 – 1296 A.D.)

Sultan Jalal-ud-din was already 70 years-old when he came to the throne. He was mild and generous in his nature and consequently he was able to win over most of his enemies to his side. But his mildness and tenderness had an evil effect on the peace and tranquility of the state. He fostered sedition and encouraged the spirit of rebellion and disorder.

Malik Chajju, whose original name was Kishlu Khan was a nephew of Balban and aspired the throne for himself. But the successful Khilji revolution put an end to all his dream, and forced by the circumstances he had to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Khilji monarch, Jalal-ud-din. For his submission he was duly awarded with the Jagir of Kara. 

It is a matter of wonder why such a king who left the rebels and the robbers unpunished killed Siddhi Maula, a man of peace or a ‘Darvesh’. It is said that once a plot was hatched against the Sultan to kill him, but as it was discovered before it was carried out, all the culprits were caught and brought before the Sultan.

The Mongols unde their leader Halaku invaded India in 1292 A.D. Jalal-ud-din sent a large force against them. They were defeated and put to sword in large numbers. But showed his weakness and impotency when he allowed some of the Mongols families to settle near Delhi now known as Mugalpura.

The most important event of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji’s reign was the invasion of Devgiri by his nephew and son-in-law Ala-ud-Din Khilji. As a governor of Kara and Oudh, Ala-ud-Din thought of undertaking an expedition against Devgiri, with the chief aim of amassing it’s great and fabulous wealth. Its ruler, king Ram Chandra was defeated and he agreed to pay a huge war-indemnity and ceded the rich territory of Elichpur to the Muslim invader. Laden with enormous booty he returned to Kara in triumph. When Jalal-ud-Din came to know of the victory of Devgiri he was much pleased and himself went to Kara to meet his nephew and son-in-law, Ala-ud-Din Khilji. As soon as the old Sultan got up to embrace his cousin affectionately he was murdered and his adherents were put to the sword.

ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI (1296 – 1316 A.D.)

Ala-ud-din Khilji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji. He had won a great reputation as a soldier, so his uncle appointed him as the Governor of Kara and later on Oudh was also added to his fief or Jagir. In 1292 A.D he attacked Bhilsa and in 1296 A.D. led an expedition against king Rama Chandra of Devgiri and after defeating him he got an enormous amount from him.

Mongol Invasions: -Since the days of Iltutmish the Mongols created serious problems for the Sultan of Delhi. During Ala-ud-Din’s reign the Mongols invaded India as many as five times. But the most dreadful invasion of the Mongols occurred in1299 A.D, when Qutlugh Khwaja appeared at the very gates of Delhi. Ulgh Khan and Zafar Khan, who had gained much experience against the Mongols, assisted the Sultan. In the bloody and fierce battle that was fought near Delhi, Zafar Khan was killed but he created such a terror in the minds of the Mongols that they lost heart and ran-pell-mell to save their lives and were killed in large numbers.

Conquests of Ala-ud-Din Khilji: - Ala-ud-Din Khilji was one of the greatest rulers of India and perhaps the greatest ruler of Medieval India. He was a great military genius who adopted the incessant policy of Blood and Iron and added many new territories to the Muslim Empire.

Gujarat                                                                                                                                                           He dispatched two of his most faithful generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan, to conquer Gujarat. Consequently Gujarat was attacked and conquered without much difficulty. Raja Karna, with his daughter Deval Devi fled towards Devgiri and was cordially received by its ruler. His wife Kamla Devi however, fell into the hands of the Muslims and was brought to Delhi where she was married to the Sultan. It was at Cambay that Nusrat Khan brought a Hindu slave, Malik Kafur; for one thousand Dinars. It was this “Hazar – Dinari” or Malik Kafur who later on won Deccan for his master Ala-ud-Din Khilji.

Ranthambhor                                                                                                                                                  In 1299 Ala-ud-Din tried to conquer it and sent a large force under Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to achieve this aim. The Muslims besieged Ranthambhor but the Rajputs under Rana Hamir faced the enemy so bravely that the Muslims were forced to raise the siege. Nusrat Khan was also killed and Ulugh Khan was forced to leave the field. When Ala-ud-Din came to know of this disaster he himself marched to conquer Ranthambhor. Ranthambhor was once again besieged. The siege continued for 11^th months but still the Rajputs were stubborn. At last one of Rana’s general (Ranmal by name) betrayed his master and hastened the surrender of the fort. The fort was eventually captured in July, 1301 A.D Rana Hamir Dev, along with the other members of his family, was captured and later on put to death.

Mewar or Chittor

It is suggested that the immediate cause of the invasion of Mewar was Ala-ud-Din’s passionate desire to possess Padmani, the queen of Rana Ratan Singh, who was renowned all over India for her exceptional beauty and charm. The Rajputs fought upto the last man while Padmani along with other Rajput women performed Jauhar and perished in the flames. Chittor was put under the charge of Ala-ud-Din’s son Khizar Khan and was renamed after his name, as Khizarabad. In 1311 A.D. the brave Rajputs drove Khizar Khan out of Rajputana and once again regained their independence. Rana Hamir once again came to control the destiny of Mewar.

Malwa                                                                                                                                                              In 1305 A.D. an expedition was sent against this state. Its ruler Rai Mahlak Dev tried to face the Muslim invaders at the head of a large force, but he was soon overpowered and killed. There after the chief cities of Malwa-like Mandu, Ujjain, Dhar, and Chandari-were captured one by one.

Devgiri                                                                                                                                                        After his submission Raja Ramachandra was sent to Delhi where Ala-ud-Din treated him most generously and conferred on him many high titles. In this way he won his enemy to his side for ever. Ramachandra was then sent back too his state an allowed to rule as a vassal of Ala-ud-Din Khilji.

Warangal                                                                                                                                                         In 1309 A.D. Malik Kafur was directed to go still farther the south and conquer Warangal. Marching through difficult regions and plundering all along the way, Malik Kafur reached Telangana and soon besieged its capital Warrangal. The Kaikatiya ruler Pratap Rudra Deva, offered stubborn resistance, but in the end he agreed to submit and offer all his treasures to the Muslim invader.

Dwarsamudra                                                                                                                                              The Hoysala rulers Vira Balla III submitted after a feeble resistance. A huge booty, consisting of 36 elephants and a large quantity of gold, silver jewels and pearls of quality fell to the hands of the Muslims general.

Madura                                                                                                                                                    Sunder Pandya sought the help of the Muslims in his struggle against his brother, thereby providing a good opportunity to Malik Kafur to invade the Pandya territory. Madura was captured and its temples razed to the ground. In memory of this victory Malik Kafur built a beautiful mosque at Madura.

Second invasion of Devgiri

After the death of Raja Ramachandra of Devgiri his son Sankara Deva ceased to pay the annual tribute, so Ala-ud-Din sent his General Malik Kafur once again to south. Sankara Deva was defeated and beheaded and all his territory was fully ravaged so that such a thing might not happen again.

Administrative Reforms

He tried to introduce reforms in every branch of the administration whether administrative, military or economic and laid the foundation of highly organized administrative machinery.

·         Ala-ud-Din Khilji snatched so much wealth from the Amirs and Jagirdars that they were rendered quite important to think in terms of insurrections. All the lands, which were, given in proprietary rights (Milk), in full gift (Inam) or as religious endowment (Wakf) were brought under the government control with one stroke of pen.

·         In order to discourage conspiracy and spirit of revolt, the Sultan issued orders that noblemen should not give dinners and arrange parties without his previous sanction. They were not to visit at each others houses nor could they hold meetings. Even for contracting matrimonial alliances they had to get the prior sanction of the Sultan. Gambling and dancing, even for recreation, was also forbidden.

·         Knowing fully well the evil effects of wine, the Sultan prohibited not only wine-drinking but also wine selling and the use of other intoxicating drugs.

·         Ala-ud-Din organized an efficient spy-system. These spies were kept at the provincial headquarters, in markets and in all the units of the army.

·         Through himself a staunch Musalman, Ala-ud-Din could never tolerate the undue interference of religion in the political affairs of the state. The Hindus were taxed so heavily that it was out of question for them to ride on horse back, wear fine clothes, carry arms and cultivate luxurious habits.

·         Ala-ud-Din Khilji was the first Muslim monarch to organize the land revenue system on a sound basis. He got the whole land measured and then fixed the share of the state. The revenue of the state especially in the Khalsa lands in Doab, began to be collected in kind rather than in cash. A large number of storehouses and granaries were built in the capital to store large quantities of grains. The merchants were under the control of superintendent of markets ‘Shahna-i-mandi’.

·         Qazi Ala-ul-Mulk was the scholar who taught the Sultan great wisdom and advised him to leave the work of founding a new religion to the prophets and instead of trying to conquer the whole world he should try to conquer the still unsubdued parts of India. Qazi Mughis-ud-Din was a great Muslim theologian who helped the Sultan a good deal in interpreting the Muslim scriptures.

·         Ala-ud-Din Khilji was also a great builder. He built many mosques, forts and tanks and laid the foundation of some cities. He built the new city of Delhi called ‘Siri’. He tried to build a very huge tower or ‘Minar’ in Delhi which can still be seen in an unfinished state near the Qutub Minar. Very close to the Qutub Minar there stands another building, called Ala Darwaza, which is also supposed to have been built by Ala-ud-Din Khilji. In Delhi he got constructed a big tank known as “Hauz Khas” which has recently become a picnic spot for the visitors of Delhi.

·         He took the title of Sikandar-I-Sani.

SHIHAB-UD-DIN UMAR (1316 A.D.)

Towards the close of Ala-ud-Din’s reign, the influence of his slave general, Malik Kafur, had greatly increased. In order to avoid opposition from any side he placed on the throne Shihab-ud-Din Umar, a child of 6 years, and became his regent. At last a conspiracy was formed against Kafur and he was killed on February 6, 1316 when he had hardly ruled for 35 days.

MUBARAK SHAH, (1316 – 1320 A.D.)

He relaxed various stringent rules and abolished various taxes which hung heavy on the trade and commerce of the country. The political prisoners were set free and the revolts of Gujarat and Devgiri were successfully put down. His unworthy associates, especially Khusrav Khan, a Hindu convert from Gujarat, began to insult the distinguished nobles of the court. The king gave himself completely to the life of pleasure and his subjects also enjoyed themselves to the full, like their master. He declared himself the Kalifa and took the title of “Al-wasiqbillah”. He was killed and succeeded by his own wazir Khusrav Shah.

NASIR-UD-DIN KHUSRAV SHAH (1320 A.D.)

He was a Hindu convert and it is said that when he became an independent ruler he tried to re-establish the Hindu regime. All the survivors of Ala-ud-Din’s family were murdered and the royal harem was assaulted. Khusrav was defeated and killed and Ghazi Malik ascended the throne as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in A.D. 1320.

TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320 – 1414 A.D.)

GHIAS-UD-DIN TUGHLAQ (1320 – 1325 A.D.)

Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq was the founder of the Tughlaq Empire in India. For many years he served under Ala-ud-Din Khilji as the Warden of the Marches or the Governor of the Frontire Province. Soon after his accession to the throne the Sultan paid his attention towards the administration. Very able and honest officers were recruited and various reforms were introduced in the judicial and police departments. He adopted moderate policy and his objective was to improve in the condition of farmers. He gave up the policy of land measurement and started Batai system i.e. sharing of crops; Ghias-ud-Din also built a new city of Tughlakabad near Delhi which still excites our curioitsy for its massiveness and simplicity.

After the death of Ala-ud-Din, the ruler of Warrangal, Pratap Rudra Deva II, asserted his independence; so two expeditions in 1321 and 1323 were sent against him. He was defeated in a battle and his Empire was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate. In Bengal, a civil war was going on between the two grandsons of Bughra Khan, taking full advantage of this rift, the Sultan invaded Bengal and brought a great portion of that state under his control.

Nijamuddin Auliya had said about him ‘Delhi is far away’. When he returned to Delhi from the Bengal expedition he was cordially received by his son Juna Khan in the new pavilion that was specially constructed for this purpose in Afghanpura, near his new capital Tughlakabad. But the pavilion fell down and the Sultan was killed under it in 1325 A.D.

MUHAMMAD TUGHLAQ (1325 – 1351 A.D.)

After the death of Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq in 1325 A.D. his son Juna Khan ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. He ruled for about 26 years (i.e., 1325 to 1351A.D). He was one of the most extraordinary kings that ever sat on the throne of Delhi. He was expert in Arabics, Persian, Astronomy, Philosophy, Maths, Medicine, Logic etc. He applied his rational and innovative mind in every aspect of administration but achieved little success as he was very hasty in nature. His main experiments were –

1.            Increase of Taxes in the Doab, (1326 A.D):- The first administration measure that the Sultan introduced was to increase the land revenue of the Doab, the fertile plains between the Ganges and the Jamuna. But this measure of increasing the land revenue in the Doab was taken at a time when a terrible famine was prevailing in the Doab and the people had suffered a lot under its disastrous effects.

2.            Transfer of the Capital, (1326 A.D):- In 1326 A.D. Muhammad Tughlaq transferred his capital from Delhi to Devgiri in the Deccan and renamed it as Daulatabad. His empire included large portions of the Deccan which were difficult to rule from Delhi, which was not in the centre of his empire. So he decided to transfer his capital to Daulatabad, which was more centrally situated. But instead of shifting his government officers alone in the new capital he ordered all the inhabitants of Delhi; men, women and children, to move to Daulatabad with all their bag and baggage. But soon there occurred some revolts in the North and the Mongols began to repeat their invasions with a greater frequency.

3.            Experiment in Token Currency, (1330 A.D):- Another novel innovation of the Sultan was the introduced of token or copper currency. Because of his reckless generosity and the various visionary plans the Sultan got his treasury greatly drained. In order to increase his financial resources for effecting his grand plans and carrying out various administrative reforms Muhammad Tughlaq issued copper coins in 1330 A.D and ordered that they should be considered equal in value to those of silver and gold coins. But here, too, he failed in spite of his good intentions, simply because he was much ahead of his times. In utter despair he proclaimed the whosoever possessed copper coins should get them exchanged with the silver and gold coins.

4.            Buying off the Mongols: - When the Mongols came to know that the Sultan had changed his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, they were emboldened and in 1328 A.D under their leader Tarmshirin Khan, they attacked India and with lightning speed they reached the very gates of Delhi. Muhammad Tughlaq was away in the Deccan and was busy in solving other complications. So he paid heavy sums to the Mongols and sent them back. But this policy of buying off the Mongols proved very disastrous, because the Mongols renewed their invasion with greater speed than ever. It was because of this pressure from the Mongols that Muhammad Tughlaq was forced to change his capital once again from Daulatabad to Delhi.

5.            World Conquest: - Like Ala-ud-Din Khilji he cherished the idea of world conquest and for this purpose he maintained a huge army (comprising about 3, 70, 000 soldiers). First of all he tried to conquer Khorasan in persia and paid regular salaries to his vast army for one year. But because of certain difficulties he changed his idea and disbanded the army after one year. The disgusted soldier began to plunder their own country and thus caused a good deal of confusion in the country.

He established a new agricultural department ‘Diwan-i-Amir Kohi’ and gave agricultural loan ‘Takavi’ to farmers. Kangra was also conquered by Muhammad Tughlaq in 1337. Muhammad Tughlaq had failed to Subde Thatta or Sind and had died there a broken – hearted.

FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351 – 1388 A.D)

Soon after his accession to the throne Firoz Shah led an expedition against Bengal in 1353 A.D. Its ruler Haji Ilyas was besieged in the fort of Iqdala. In 1359 A.D another expedition was sent against Bengal, when Haji Ilyas’s son Sikandar was ruling there. But because of the weak and vacillating nature of the Sultan this expedition proved as useless as the first one.

While returning from his second expedition of Bengal, Firoz Tughlaq marched against Jajnagar or modern Orissa. Various temples including the famous Jagannath temple at Puri were destroyed and their idols were thrown in the sea. He also attacked Kangra fort unsuccessfully.

Administration

Soon after his accession to the throne Firoz Shah tried to trace each and every individual who had suffered at the hands of the late Sultan, Muhammad Tughlaq. Liberal grants were given to such people and ‘Declaration of Satisfaction’ were received from them and placed in the tomb of Muhammad Tughlaq at Delhi. Similarly all those loans, which were advanced to the public during famine days, were also cancelled so as to relieve the burden of the people.

·               Firoz Shah abolished all those oppressive taxes, which were a great burden on poor people. The land revenue was greatly reduced to relieve the peasants. Similarly such other taxes, which told heavily on the trade and commerce of the country, were reduced or completely abolished. He levied only the four taxes allowed in the Holy law, namely the Kharaj, Zakat, Jazia and Khums.

·               He got digged 5 canals for irrigation work in Delhi and Haryana region.

·               He introduced a new tax on irrigation – Huq – I – Shurb which was 1/10^th of produce.

·               Once he gave a Tanka to one of his Horseman so that he could get his horse passed from Arij department by bribing.

·               A special department, called “Diwan – a – Khairat, was established to help the poor and the needy. It also helped the poor Muslims in arranging the marriages of their daughters and gave them state help. An ‘Employment Bureau’ resembling the modern ‘Employment exchange’ was also organized to find out jobs for the unemployed.

·               Free hospitals were also set up for the poor. One such hospital called ‘Darul – Shafa’ was established in Delhi where free medicine and food were supplied to the patients.

·               Several new coins were introduced for the use of the poor people. Several small coins like ‘Adha’ or half – Jital and ‘Bikh’ or quarter of a Jital were minted in an alloy of silver and copper.

·               Among the cities built by him, were included Firozabad near Delhi (now called Firoz Shah Kotla), Jaunpur, Hissar – firoza or Hissar and Fatehabad.

·               Two of Ashoka’s pillars, one from Topara in Ambala district and the other from Meerut, were brought to Delhi and erected his new capital, Firozabad.

·               He for the first time imposed Jazia on the Brahmans who were according to him, the very keys of the chamber of idolatry. He destroyed the most famous temples of the Hndus, like Jawala – Mukhi in Knagra and Jagannath Puri in Orissa, and killed a large number of priests. Firoz Shah Tughlaq revived the Jagirdari system, which had been discontinued by Ala – ud – Din Khilji.

·               He maintained huge 1, 80,000 slaves under him.

·               Because of his welfare work he is called as ‘ Akbar of Sultanate era’

·               He got investiture from Caliph, called himself as Deputy of Caliph and got the name of Caliph engraved on his coins.

Successors of Firoz Tughlaq:

After the death of Firoz in 1388 A.D a number of rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty ruled up to 1412 A.D. But they were all weak kings and the Tughlaq Empire soon fell under them. In 1398 there occurred the invasion of Timur in which the Indians had to suffer untold miseries. Both Mahmud and Nusrat Shah ran for their lives at the approach of Timur but when the invader returned to his country Mahmud once more occupied the throne and ruled for 14 years upto 1412A.D. In 1412A.D the Amirs chose Daulat Khan, (1412 – 1414) as their leader but he was attacked by Khizra Khan, Timur’s deputy in Hindustan and the governor of Sultan and was forced to abdicate on May 23, 1414 A.D.

THE SYEDS (1414 – 1450 A.D)

On Mahmud Tughlaq’s death, Khizr Khan, governor of Multan (appointed by Timur) established himself at the throne of Delhi in A.D. 1414. He claimed to be a descendant from the prophet and so the dynasty founded by him is known as Syed Dynasty. To deal with the prevailing anarchy Khizr Khan and his successor Mubarak Shah (1421 – 1434) employed a large number of Afghans. Mubarak Shah was mudered by his own Wazir, two more Sultans followed suits, Muhammad Shah and Alam Shah. The later could not manage to hold even his shrunken kingdom and willingly abdicated in favour of Bahlol Lodi, a powerful Afghan noble. The Sultanate of Delhi thus passed peacefully into the Afghan hands.

THE LODIS (1451 – 1526 A.D)

The Lodi were first Afghan to rule India

Bahlol Lodi (1451 – 1489 A.D.).

 Bahlol’s accession to throne was recented by the king of Jaunpur’s Sharqi dynasty, which was founded during the period of Nasir – ud – Din Mahmud. Bahlol annexed entire Sharqi Kingdom and issued Bahloli coins. He never sat on throne and used to sit on carpet along with his Amirs so used to call his Amirs as Masnad – I – Ali.

Sikandar Lodi (1489 – 1517 A.D.).

 To deal with the Rajputas effectively, he built a new capital at Agra in A.D. 1505 and carried on from there campaign against Raja Man Singh of Gwalior. He also succeeded in taking Chanderi and Ranthombhor. He was the greatest and ablest ruler of the Lodi Dynasty. He held Afghan noble in check. His mother was a Hindu. During his reign prices of commodities were very cheap. He encouraged agriculture and made road safe for travel, for measurement of land he introduced ‘Gaj – I – Sikandari’. He wrote Persian verses under the name ‘Gulrukhi’. His original name was ‘Nezam Shah’. In later years he turned a bigot and oppressed Hindus.

Ibrahim Lodi (1517 – 1526 A.D.).

He captured Gwalior. He was defeated by Rana Sanga of Mewar. The governor of Bihar decalred independence and that of Punjab, Daulat Khan, invaded Hindustan. He was defeated and died at the hands of Babur in the first battle of Panipat on April 21, A.D. 1526. Babur occupied Delhi and Agra and led the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India.

ADMINISTRATION STRUCTURE

Central Government

The Sultan:

Sultan was the chief source of power and justice. His word was the law and he could appoint and dismiss any person at his will. He could maintain or severe his connections with the Khalifa at his will. He could silence the Ulemas as Ala – ud – Din Khilji did and defies them as Muhammad Tughlaq had done. God granted farr (Supernatural effulgence) on the kings. This provided a divine origin of Kingship.

The sultans carried the functions of the government in the name of Khalifa. Mohammad Ghori inscribed the Khalifa’s name on his coins, as did Iltutmish. Khalifa Al – Mustansir sent Iltutmish a letter of investiture. Balban considered himself vice regent of God and his shadow on the earth. Mubarak Shah issued coins bearing the Khalifa’s title was Wasiq Billah. When MBT faced rebellions, he issued coins in the name of a deceased descendent of a former Baghdad Abbasid Khalifa who had moved to Egypt, to legitimize his rule. FST got investiture from Abbasid Khalifa of Egypt and the title of Sayyidus Salatin (chief of the Sultans).

The Sultan of Delhi was in theory an unlimited despot, bound by no law, subject to no ministerial check and guided by no will except his own. The Sultan generally discussed all important matters of state in a council, Majilis – I – Aam or Majilis – I – Khalwat. The government or the administrative machinery founded by the Delhi Sultans was more or less military in character. The king was assisted in his work by a number of Wazir’s or ministers who were incharge of various departments. The chief departments of the state were:-

1.      Diwan – I – Risalat or Department of Appeals;

2.      Diwan – I – Arz or the Military Department;

3.      Diwan – I – Bandagan or Department of Slaves;

4.      Diwan – I – Insha or Record Department;

5.      Diwan – I – Khairat or the Department of Charity;

6.      Diwan – I – Vizarat or Department of Finance;

7.      Diwan – I – Amir Kohi or Agriculture Department.

Some Other Important Officers:

1.      Amir – I – Bahar : Navugation

2.      Kotwal : maintenance of peace in cities

3.      Mufti : To explain religion

4.      Muhatsib: To look after the conduct of people.

5.      Mutasarrif: To look royal Karkhana.

Provincial Government

The Empire under the Delhi Sultans was divided into a large number of provinces. When this Empire reached it widest extent (under Muhammad Tughlaq) it had no less than 23 provinces. These provinces were put under the charge of governors who generally belonged to the royal family. Sometimes these provinces, were, however, given to some faithful nobles of the Sultan. These governors enjoyed great powers and were almost kings in miniature in their own provinces. They performed all the executive, judicial and military functions in their territories almost as a despot, subject only to the general control of the central government. He maintained his own militia and rendered military service to the king in times of need.

Local Administration

The provinces were further divided and sub-divided into a number of units and sub-units which resembled more or less with the present districts and Tehsils. The village, however, formed the lowest unit of administration. There the Khuts, Chaudhris and Patwaris carried on the local administration very efficiently with the help of village Panchayats